Psychology Chapter One freshman Course

CHAPTER ONE: ESSENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY

Chapter Overview:

• This chapter introduces the concept of psychology, covering definitions, goals, historical background, major perspectives, branches, and research methods.

Learning Outcomes:

• Define psychology

• Show the historical roots of psychology

• Identify goals and early schools of psychology

• Discuss different perspectives and subfields

• Differentiate research methods and steps in scientific research

1.1. Definition of Psychology and Related Concepts

• Origin: The term "psychology" comes from the Greek words psyche (mind, soul) and logos (study, knowledge). It represents the study of the mind and its processes, often symbolized by the Greek letter ᴪ (psi).

• Scientific Definition:

o Science: Psychology employs scientific methods to study behavior and mental processes, using empirical data.

o Behavior: Includes observable actions and reactions, as well as covert behaviors considered mental processes.

o Mental Processes: Refers to internal activities like thinking, feeling, and remembering.

1.2. Goals of Psychology

• Description: Observing and noting behavior to understand "What is happening?" This involves documenting actions and reactions.

o Example: Noticing a student's decline in performance and attitude.

• Explanation: Seeking reasons for observed behavior, leading to theories.

o Example: Understanding a student's behavior might involve investigating their home background.

• Prediction: Determining future behavior based on current observations and research.

o Example: Predicting a student's academic potential based on observed issues.

• Control: Modifying behavior from undesirable to desirable, and controlling for variables in research.

o Example: Implementing learning strategies to improve academic performance, or controlling socio-economic factors in research.

Reflection:

• Compare the definition of psychology with prior conceptions.

• Reflect on how the four goals of psychology (description, explanation, prediction, control) relate to and differ from each other.

1.3. Historical Background and Major Perspectives in Psychology

Historical Context:

• Psychology is a relatively new science, emerging around 125 years ago with Wilhelm Wundt establishing the first psychology laboratory in 1879 at the University of Leipzig, Germany. Wundt's method, objective introspection, aimed to scientifically study mental experiences.

Early Schools of Psychology:

1. Structuralism:

o Founder: Edward Titchener (1867-1927)

o Focus: Analyzing the structure of the mind by identifying its basic elements like sensations, images, and feelings through introspection.

o Method: Introspection, which involves examining one's own conscious experience.

2. Functionalism:

o Founder: William James (1848-1910)

o Focus: Studying the functions of the mind, such as how it allows people to adapt to their environment and perform daily activities.

o Methods: Included questionnaires, mental tests, and objective descriptions of behavior.

o Viewpoint: Psychological processes are adaptive, helping humans to survive and adapt to their surroundings.

3. Gestalt Psychology:

o Founders: Max Wertheimer and colleagues

o Focus: Studying the mind as a whole, rather than breaking it into parts. The term "gestalt" means form or pattern.

o Viewpoint: The mind is perceived as more than just the sum of its parts, emphasizing patterns and relationships in sensory experiences.

Evolution to Behaviorism:

• The shift towards behaviorism emerged from the belief that subjective experiences could not be scientifically studied. Behaviorism focuses on observable and measurable behaviors rather than internal experiences.

Reflection Questions:

• How does the historical development of psychology influence its current practices and perspectives?

• What are the key differences and connections between structuralism, functionalism, and gestalt psychology?

Behaviorism and Psychoanalysis

Behaviorism:

• Founder: John B. Watson

• Proponents: E. Thorndike, F. Skinner

• Focus: Study of observable and measurable behaviors, rejecting the study of hidden mental processes.

• Key Concepts:

o Conditioned Response: Behavior is built on conditioned responses.

o Learned Behaviors: All behaviors are learned, not inherited.

o Passive Learners: Learners react to environmental stimuli rather than initiating learning.

• Method: Focused on observable behavior rather than internal states.

Psychoanalysis:

• Founder: Sigmund Freud

• Focus: Study of the unconscious mind and its influence on behavior.

• Key Concepts:

o Unconscious Mind: Contains hidden wishes, desires, and conflicts.

o Hysteria: Emotional problems manifest as physical symptoms.

o Methods: Clinical case studies, hypnosis, dream analysis.

• Perspective: Emphasizes the influence of unconscious forces on behavior and the impact of early childhood experiences.

Comparison of Early Schools:

• Object of Study: Conscious vs. unconscious mind, and overt vs. hidden behavior.

• Goal: Analyze components of the mind vs. observing environmental effects on behavior.

• Method: Introspection, observation, clinical case studies.

Modern Schools of Psychology:

1.  Psychodynamic Perspective:

• Focus: Unconscious dynamics, childhood experiences, intrapersonal conflicts.

• Goal: Understand unconscious motives and conflicts influencing behavior.

2.  Behavioral Perspective:

• Focus: Learning experiences and environmental conditions affecting behavior.

• Goal: Study how environmental stimuli shape behavior, treating the mind as a "black box."

3.Humanistic Perspective:

• Focus: Human uniqueness, free will, and self-actualization.

• Goal: Help individuals achieve their full potential and express themselves creatively.

4.Cognitive Perspective:

• Focus: Mental processes such as reasoning, memory, and problem-solving.

• Goal: Explore how thoughts and mental activities influence behavior and feelings.

5. Biological Perspective:

o Focus: Biological processes and their impact on behavior and mental processes.

o Key Concepts:

 Neurotransmitters: Chemical substances that transmit signals in the brain.

 Brain Structures: Different parts of the brain and their functions.

 Genetics: Influence of heredity on behavior and mental processes.

o Goal: Understand how biological factors such as brain structure and function, genetic inheritance, and neurochemical processes affect behavior.

6. Sociocultural Perspective:

o Focus: The impact of social and cultural factors on behavior.

o Key Concepts:

 Cultural Norms: How societal rules and cultural values influence behavior.

 Social Interactions: The role of social interactions and relationships in shaping behavior.

o Goal: Explore how social contexts and cultural backgrounds influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Reflection Questions:

• Modern Schools: How do the modern schools of psychology differ in their approach to studying behavior and mental processes compared to the early schools?

• Integration: How might insights from different perspectives be integrated to provide a more comprehensive understanding of human behavior?

The modern schools of psychology have evolved from the early theories, broadening the scope of psychological research and practice. Each perspective offers a unique approach to understanding the complexities of human behavior, reflecting the diverse ways in which psychologists attempt to unravel the intricacies of the mind and behavior.

Branches/Subfields of Psychology:

• Developmental Psychology:

o Studies physical, cognitive, and psychological changes across the lifespan.

o Examines major developmental milestones at different stages of development.

• Personality Psychology:

o Focuses on enduring traits and characteristics of individuals.

o Studies topics such as self-concept, aggression, and moral development.

• Social Psychology:

o Deals with social interactions, relationships, social perception, and attitudes.

• Cross-Cultural Psychology:

o Examines the role of culture in behavior, thought, and emotion.

o Compares psychological processes across different cultures.

• Industrial Psychology:

o Applies psychological principles to increase productivity in industries and organizations.

• Forensic Psychology:

o Applies psychological principles to improve the legal system, including areas such as police work and testimony.

• Educational Psychology:

o Applies psychological principles to improve the educational process, including curriculum, teaching, and academic administration.

• Health Psychology:

o Applies psychological principles to the prevention and treatment of physical illnesses and diseases.

• Clinical Psychology:

o Applies psychological principles to the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders.

• Counseling Psychology:

o Similar to clinical psychology but focuses on helping individuals with less severe problems.

1.5. Research Methods in Psychology

A. Definition of Terms

• Scientific Method: A process for reducing bias and error in the measurement of data through systematic observations, experiments, and statistical analysis.

• Theory: An integrated set of principles intended to describe and explain aspects of experience.

• Hypothesis: A tentative proposition about the relationship between two or more variables or phenomena. For example, "Males have higher self-confidence in making decisions than females."

B. Major Types of Research Methods

• Descriptive Research:

o Purpose: To record and describe observations systematically.

o Methods:

 Naturalistic Observation: Observing subjects in their natural environment to get a real picture of behavior. Limitations include observer effect and observer bias.

 Case Study: An in-depth study of a single individual or case. It provides detailed data but may not be generalizable.

• Correlational Research:

o Purpose: To examine relationships between variables and determine whether and how they are related.

o Key Concept: Correlation does not imply causation. It can show associations but not cause-and-effect relationships.

• Experimental Research:

o Purpose: To determine cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating one variable and observing the effect on another.

o Methods:

 Independent Variable (IV): The variable that is manipulated.

 Dependent Variable (DV): The variable that is measured.

 Control Group: A group that does not receive the experimental treatment.

 Experimental Group: A group that receives the treatment.

These research methods are crucial for exploring different aspects of psychology and providing evidence for theories and hypotheses

Experimental Group and Control Group:

• Experimental Group: The group of students assigned to small class sizes.

• Control Group: The group of students assigned to large class sizes. This group serves as a baseline for comparing the effects of class size.

Experimental research must be conducted cautiously to avoid biases and expectations that could affect the results.

C. Steps of Scientific Research:

• Defining the Problem: Identifying an observation or phenomenon that requires explanation. For instance, noticing that children become more aggressive after watching violent cartoons.

• Formulating the Hypothesis: Creating a testable statement based on observations. Example: "Children who watch violent cartoons will become more aggressive than those who watch non-violent cartoons."

• Testing the Hypothesis: Collecting and analyzing data to determine if the hypothesis is supported. Comparing behaviors of children who watch aggressive videos with those who watch non-aggressive videos.

• Drawing Conclusions: Making generalizations or implications based on the data collected.

• Reporting Results: Documenting and sharing the findings to allow others to learn from and build upon the research.

Reflection Questions:

• Compare and contrast the three major types of research methods in psychology (descriptive, correlational, and experimental) and discuss the ethical procedures to be followed.

• Discuss the steps involved in conducting psychological research.

Summary:

• Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

• Psychologists aim to describe, explain, predict, and control behavior.

• The field has evolved from early schools of thought (e.g., structuralism, functionalism, behaviorism, psychoanalysis) to modern perspectives (e.g., psychodynamic, behavioral, humanistic, cognitive).

• Psychology is applied in various contexts such as health, education, business, and law.

• Research methods in psychology include descriptive, correlational, and experimental approaches.

• Conducting research involves defining a problem, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, drawing conclusions, and reporting results.

Discussion Questions:

• Compare and contrast the five early schools of thought in psychology.

• Compare and contrast the modern psychological perspectives.

• Reflect on the relationship between the goals of psychology and the three types of research methods using examples.

• List the steps of conducting research in psychology.

• In an experiment on tutorial support:

o a) Dependent Variable: Students’ academic performance.

o b) Independent Variable: Tutorial support.

o c) Control Group: Students who do not receive tutorial support.

o d) Experimental Group: Students who receive tutorial support.